Institutional Racism and Racial Discrimination in the U.S. Health Care System Essay Example for Free

Institutional Racism and Racial Discrimination in the U.S. Health Care System Essay Institutional racism and racial discrimination in the U.S. health care system has been part of a long continuum dating back over 400 years. After hundreds of years of active discrimination, efforts were made to admit minorities into the mainstream health system but these efforts were flawed. Colin Gordon in his book Dead on Arrival portrays a very strong stance towards this issue when he states, â€Å"The American welfare state has always been, at root, a Jim Crow welfare state – disdainful of citizenship claims of racial minorities, deferential to a southern-controlled Congress, and leery of the racial implications of universal social programs† (172). It is evident that throughout the history of U.S. health care that race has shaped health provisions in a number of ways, most noticeably in private and public health care institutions. Gordon throughout his books discusses the ways in which institutional racism, specifically in the field of healthcare, has manifested itself throughout history. One of the most prominent manifestations of institutional racism in the healthcare field comes to light when examining past (and sometimes present) policies regarding admission (to healthcare facilities) and discrimination of minorities. It is evident when observing the adoption, administration, and implementation of these policies in the past that they were purposefully constructed to be exclusive of minority citizens (specifically African Americans and Latinos). Gordon gives an example of such policies in 1939 under the Social Security reforms. In the formative years of the New Deal southerners in Congress pushed for and won for the exclusion of agricultural and domestic labor from coverage under the National Recovery, Agricultural Adjustment, Social Security, National Labor Relations, and Fair Labor Standards act, this affectively excluded 90 percent of the southern black workforce (185). The implications of this act of agricultural exclusion are most clearly evident in the South and Southwest—regions whose economies were dominated by agriculture, who agriculture systems were peculiarly labor intensive, and whose agricultural labor markets were organized around low wages, tenancy, harsh legal controls, and violence. Gordon argues that segregation  persisted in medicine and hospitals longer than in any other public institution or facility partly due to the fact that Southern Congressmen pushed for local control of any federal expenditure; and later on this pushed Southern and Southwestern leaders into a partnership with doctors, employers, and insurers to keep racial minorities excluded from the health system. Southern interests led to a push for job-based private insurance, locally administered subsidies for hospital construction, and penurious charitable programs for those left behind, â€Å"southerners persistently worked to exclude African Americans from coverage, tap into federal funds without sacrificing local practices, and ensure that charity programs remained under local control† (174). Employment-based benefits, initially developed as a surrogate for national policy, was successful in leaving behind the majority of African Americans and Latinos due to the fact that they were grossly underrepresented in the unionized industrial economy, and in part because benefits such as these did not extend to casual or domestic or agricultural workers. Private health benefits came to be looked upon by many Americans as a â€Å"wage of white-ness† (176). Federal agencies, both out of practical and political necessity, consistently surrendered control over federal funds and standards over to state and local administration, â€Å"states set their own standards for care and eligibility and controlled the pace and scope of federal matching funds. Local political and medical authorities wielded considerable informal power and discretion† (187). In 1948 the Brookings Institution published a book-length assault on health reform. The conclusion of this publication was that higher black mortality rates are â€Å"predominately the result of economic, cultural and social differences† although, the research for this publication based cost estimates off of the ordinary expenditures of white families and confined comparative mortality rates to the white population, this led to them to conclude that the United States was among one of the most healthful nations in the world (188). Seconding this conclusion and also asserting that higher rates of non-white mortality were due to such things as poor sanitation, housing, education, and the lack of ordinary individual and community common sense was the AMA. The partnership between these two organizations is evident. At the root of the hospital issue in the South was not only professional and patient segregation but also the way in which it was countenanced by federal efforts  to address the region’s dearth of facilities. What is shown here is the long-standing political strategy to try and appease reformers by granting federal funds but to simultaneously placate opponents by relinquishing control to local or private interests; federal aid to hospitals both in 1940 and under the 1946 Hill-Burton Act â€Å"avoided any commitment to maintenance: once built, hospitals would reflect local control and local custom† (193). This however did nothing to prevent segregation seeing as in order to be considered nondiscriminatory a hospital was only required to grant equal access to the portion of the hospital that was built with federal funds. Perhaps the most compelling public health issue during the formative years of the American welfare state was the dismal status of rural services. In places in the South and Southwest and the nation’s inner cities basic services such as a hospital, public health clinic, and a doctor accepting Medicaid patients did not even exist. Gordon offers the example in Mississippi in 1948, there were only five general hospital beds for every 100,000 blacks in the state—at a time when four beds for every 1,000 citizens was considered adequate (175). It is evident that health care in the twentieth century has been shaped by a myriad of â€Å"direct and indirect discrimination, strong southern interests and local administration, the uneasy intersection of public and private (job-based) benefits, and the sharp political distinctions routinely drawn between contributory and charitable programs† (209). According to the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, Despite the existence of civil rights legislation equal treatment and equal access are not a reality for racial/ethnic minorities and women in the current climate of the health care industry. Many barriers limit both the quality of health care and utilization for these groups, including discrimination. Importance of Health Care Access to comprehensive, quality health care services is important for the achievement of health equity and for increasing the quality of a healthy life for everyone. Access to health services entails the timely utilization of personal health services in an effort to achieve the best possible health outcomes. The utilization of and access to health care has many substantial impacts on a person’s life. A person’s overall physical, social and mental health statuses are all impacted by the ability to be examined and treated by a medical professional. Health care also plays a significant role in the prevention of disease and disability, the detection and treatment of health conditions and a person’s quality of life. A structured healthcare system assists in providing a foundation for a healthy lifestyle for both individuals and their families. Without access to healthcare, minor health issues have the potential to escalate either permanently affecting living standards or worse resulting in death. The health care sector also has an impact on the local economy. Health care facilities such as hospitals and nursing homes provide jobs and income to people in the community. As these employees spend their income in the community, a ripple spreads throughout the economy, creating additional jobs and income in other economic sectors. Also, providing healthcare may also be a business incentive to companies. Healthy employees can mean a healthier, happier, more productive workplace. A company’s decision to invest in and offer health care to their employees not only filters back into the economy but also may help them to recruit and retain quality employees, improve employee satisfaction, and reduce absenteeism due to sickness. Business that offer health insurance as part of their employee benefits package are probably better able to attract more qualified applicants than those who dont. Also, offering health insurance coverage is a way of keeping operating costs low, because employees are generally more apt to take a position at a lower salary when health insurance benefits are provided. This is because it generally costs more for someone to obtain an individual or family health insurance policy than to get employer-sponsored coverage, making the difference of a lower salary negotiable. Businesses offering health insurance can deduct their portion of the contribution toward their employee plan as a business expense and get a tax advantage. If the business is incorporated, the business owners insurance and the coverage paid for employees are deductible. Access to health care services and insurance plays a vital role in individual and families lives along side society as a whole.

The Kite Runner by Khaled Hosseini Essay Example for Free

The Kite Runner by Khaled Hosseini Essay On the surface Baba and Amir depict completely contrasting personalities. Amir is a timid, insecure child. Baba is a generous, respected over-achiever. Despite outward appearances however they share some startling similarities. They both hide a terrible secret from everyone they hold dear, and they both spend a significant part of their lives trying to atone for their respective sins. Its only when they deal with these issues that their true colors really show. In reality Baba and Amirs few similarities far outweigh their many differences. Amir and Baba appear to the outside world, and even to each other to be completely different people. Amir perceives Baba as perfect. Amir sees his father as a wealthy, and powerful man; everything anyone could aspire to be. In contrast Baba sees Amir as a weakling and a coward for the most part. He seems almost disgusted by Amirs weak stomach and cowardly tendencies. Baba loves Amir, but he finds his inability to relate to him a difficult hurdle to get over. Baba was athletic as a young man, a competitor who was used to winning. He used what he knew and tried to relate to Amir through sports, but despite Amirs best attempts to feign interest Baba saw through his charade, which only discouraged him further. Amir made his own attempts to bridge the gap between them with his stories, but Baba simply dismissed them as being childish. Baba would not encourage Amir to pursue writing because he didnt see it as a masculine thing to do. Perhaps one of the most prevalent differences between Baba and Amir is the way they see Hassan. In many ways Baba sees him as the son Amir should have been. Hassan is athletic, hard working, and exceptionally loyal. Amir treats Hassan like an underling, someone who makes him feel better about himself. Amir used Hassans illiteracy to make him feel better about himself. Even though they are genuinely friends, Amir still thinks of him as merely a Hazara, and harbors jealousy towards any affection Hassan receives from Baba. Hassan is not only the catalyst to many of their biggest differences, but also the foundation for their most intimate similarity. Baba and Amir may seem completely different but the biggest testament to their similar personalities is the way they deal with the most serious problems in their lives. Baba fathers an illegitimate son and tried to keep  him a secret for the sake of reputation. Amir allowed his best friend to be raped and uses the incident to gain his fathers love. Baba tried to alleviate his guilt over bedding his servants wife by treating Hassan equal to Amir, showering him with gifts and affection. Showing affection to Amir however made Baba feel even guiltier about Hassans situation so Amir is starved of his love. Subsequently Amir began to despise Hassan and did nothing to help him when he was raped by Assef. In fact he used the situation to force Hassan and Ali out of his home. The regret he faced haunted him for the rest of his life and he tried to atone for it by getting Hassans son out of Afghanistan. Both father and son in this scenario spent their lives dealing with an incident that they couldnt overcome. Baba showed he could be as cowardly as Amir when he refused to acknowledge Hassan as his son, and Amir showed he could be as brave as his father by going to Afghanistan and fighting Assef to save Sohrab. Baba and Amir found it difficult to show affection for one another throughout Amirs childhood due in large part to the glaring differences in their personalities. However, late in life Amir realizes that theyre really two of a kind. When theyre forced to deal with problems they show that their natural tendencies are strikingly similar. Baba and Amirs personalities are polar opposites, but at their core they are the same. Bibliography: Khaled Hosseini, The Kite Runner

Causes of Luminescence and Chemiluminescence

Causes of Luminescence and Chemiluminescence 1.1. Luminescence Phenomena Luminescence is the phenomenon of emission of electromagnetic radiation in excess of thermal radiation. The radiation is usually in the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum, however, since the same basic processes may yield infrared or ultra violet radiation. Luminescence is observed with all phases of matter: gases, liquids and solids both organic and inorganic[1]. Luminescence is an umbrella term for those kinds of events where light emission is not the result of high temperature. In fact with increasing temperature the competing nonradiative de – excitation processes become more probable and the intensity of the luminescent emission decreases. Luminescence in living organisms has been reported as far back as 1500 BC. In Chinese literature, the best known examples being the emission of light from fireflies and glow – worms[2, 3]. 1.1.1Types of Luminescence Classification according to the means by which energy is supplied to excite the luminescent molecule[4-8].Table 1.1 Table (1-1):- Different types of luminescence phenomena Excitation source Luminescence type Produced from irradiation Absorption of Uv-vis or near IR radiation. (Conversion of light energy to chemical energy). Photoluminescence Emission produced from irradiation of ÃŽ ² particles. Cathodoluminescence Emission produced from irradiation of ÃŽ ± particle. Anodoluminescence Radiation-induced chemical excitation (irradiation of ÃŽ ³ particles. Radiodoluminescence Produced from heating. Emission from incandescent solids Candoluminescence Caused by solid subjected to mild heating. Thermoluminescence Flame-excited metal atoms Pyroluminescence Produced from structural rearrangements in solids Emission from shaking, rubbing, or crushing crystals. Triboluminescence Emission from crystallization. Crystalloluminescence Excitation induced from dissolution of an irradiated or other energy-donating solid. Lyoluminescence Produced from electrical phenomena. Radiative recombination of electrons and holes in material (emission from electrical discharge) Electroluminescence Emission during electrolysis Galvanoluminescence Excitation of compounds by ultra-sonication. Sonoluminescence Emission from fractional charge separation at the crystal surface. Piezoluminescence Produced from chemical reactions Emission from luminous organisms. Bioluminescence Chemical excitation of compounds. Chemiluminescence 1.2. Chemiluminescence The term chemiluminescence (CL.) was first coined by Eilhardt Weidman in 1888. Chemiluminescence is defined as the production of electromagnetic radiation observed when a chemical reaction yields an electronically excited intermediate or product. CL-reactions emit light of varying degrees of intensity and lifetime. With colors that spare the visible spectrum [9-11]. Analytically, the CL-reactions are attractive due to: excellent detection limits results from the absence of source of noise and scattering, suitable to both batch and flow techniques highly sensitive, determinable over a wide range of concentrations, easy to operate, simplicity, absence of unwanted background so the only background signal is that of the PMT dark current and no excitation source or optical filters are required as compared to other optical or photo luminescence methods [12, 13]. However, some disadvantages are to be considered as well; A chemiluminescence reagent may yield significant emission not just for one unique analyte i.e. a lack of selectivity may occur. Moreover, chemiluminescence emission intensities are sensitive to a variety of environmental factors such as temperature, solvent, ionic strength, pH and other species present in the system. As a result, a separation condition (HPLC, capillary electrophoresis (CE), may not always match the optimum CL-emission conditions. Third, as the emission intensity from a CL-reaction varies with time,light flash composed of signal increase after reagent mixing, passing through a maximum, then decreasing back to the base – line, thus the CL- emission versus time profile differs from one compound to another and care has to be taken to detect the signal in the flowing stream during strictly defined periods [14].chemiluminescence technique is versatile for determination of a wide variety of species that can participate in the CL-reaction such as; CL-substrates or CL-precursors responsible for the excited state [15], the necessary reagent for the CL-reactions (usually an oxidant) [16] , some species that enhance the rate or sensitivity of the CL-reaction[17] ,activators such as catalysts (enzymes[18] or metal ions[19] CL. analysis found a wide application not only in the organic technology, medicine, food testing, but also in environmental monitoring and material science [20-24]. CL-reactions can be coupled as a detection technique [25] in chromatography [26, 27], capillary electrophoresis [28-30], or immunoassay, providing qualitative and / or quantitative information [31, 32]. 1.2.1. Mechanisms of Chemiluminescence Reaction Figure (1-2) shows the types of the CL-reaction mechanisms. In general CL-reactions can be generated by two basis mechanisms: Figure (1-2):- Types of CL-reactions. P, product; F, fluorescing substance Direct CL-reactions: a substrate (A) and an oxidant (B) in the presence of cofactors react to form an intermediate product in an electronically excited state which relaxes to the ground state with a photon emission. The catalyst is an enzyme or metal ions, reduces the activation energy and provides an adequate environment for producing high CL-efficiency out of the process.Cofactors sometimes are necessary to convert one or more of the substrates into a form capable of reacting and interacting with the catalyst,or to provide an efficient leaving group if bond cleavage is required to produce the excited emitter [33]. An alternative for compounds producing ultra-weak CL-emission is: Indirect or sensitized CL reactions: Since not all excited states of CL-reactions products are effective â€Å"emitters† in any case, thus the excited state energy can be transferred to an â€Å" effective â€Å" flourophore added to the system, in –order to increase the CL-intensity substantially . The most salient asset of chemical excitation is the low background noise involved, which results in very low detection limits (in the sub femtomole of region) [34,35]. Enhanced CL- reactions (ECL): describes the phenomenon which has been observed in a wide range of chemi and bioluminescence reactions. Enhancement of light emission from the luminol-hydrogen peroxide reaction at alkaline pH has been achieved by the addition of various organic compounds generally containing oxonium group. Enhancement of CL. Reaction led to intense light emission, prolonged light emission and low background[36]. Spontaneous light emission during reaction requires the presence of the following conditions[37]: The reaction must be highly exothermic (40-70 kcal/mole) in order that the CL-reaction occurred in the visible region (400 nm (violet) – 750nm (red). These exothermic conditions associated with redox reactions using Oxygen, Ozone andhydrogen peroxide or similar potential oxidants. The reaction pathway must be a favorable to channel the energy for the formation of an electronically excited state. Photon emission must be favorable deactivation process of the excited product in relation to other competitive non-radiative processes that may appear in low proportion. There are several ways for an electronically excited state species to lose its extra energy, either by reacting with another molecule, molecular dissociation, and collision with its surrounding molecules or luminescence. In the latter case it can react to liberate sufficient energy to produce photon of visible light, figure (1-3). Figure (1-3):-possible de-excitation pathways of excited molecule 1.2.2. Main Chemiluminescence-systems for analytical processes 1.2.2.1. Gas- phase chemiluminescence reactions. The development of Chemiluminescence Methods for determining components of a gas is largely originated from the need to determine atmospheric pollutants such as Ozone, Oxides of nitrogen and sulfur compounds[45, 46].The best known and most frequently used is the reaction of nitrogen oxide withOzone.CL-NOXanalyzers have been shown to respond to a number of nitrogenous pollutants besides NO and NO2. [40].Some analytical methods based on CL- reactions have been proposed for the determination of sulfur monoxide and unsaturated hydrocarbons such as Alkenes, alkynes and aromatics at high temperature,several of these are as follows[41-44]. NO+ O3NO2* + O2NO2 + hÃŽ ½(600-2800 nm)(1) (2) (3) Oxygen atoms also been applied as strong oxidants when reacted with a wide range of analyst, although not so frequently used. The reaction with nitric oxide produces a yellow- green CL-emission that has been used for measuring concentration of Oxygen atoms in kinetics experiments[45]. (4) Some CL. Reactions are based on the light emission produced in flame, rather than the cold CL-emission. Molecular emission cavity analysis (MECA) is a CL-technique in which molecular emission are generated within a cavity that is introduced into a hydrogen diffusion flame. This flame acts as the environments of radicals, atoms and molecules which promote the chemical reactions (i.e. high temperature of flame promote of chemical reactions that form key reaction intermediates and provide additional thermal excitation of the emitting species).The cavity acts as the environment for stabilizing the emitting species. MECA has been used for selective detection of compounds containing sulfur, nitrogen, phosphorous, antimony, arsenic,.Tin and halogens [46-54]. 1.2.2.2. Liquid- phase chemiluminescence reactions There are some well – established CL-reagents that have been used for solution – phase CL-reactions, their attraction include high sensitivity, wide dynamic range and simplicity [55].The Chemiluminescence of luminal and the cyclic hydrazides of aromatic and heterocyclic acids is one of the classical and still studied in CL-reactions [56]. Although hydrazides in general are Chemiluminescent, onlyhydrazides related to luminol (5 – aminophthalyhydrazide) can be considered the most commonly used. The CL. of luminol was first described by Albrecht in 1928. This compound reacts with potent oxidizing agents in the presence of catalyst in alkaline medium to yield 3 – amino phthalate in an excited electronic state which returned to the ground state; with the production ofblue emission at 425 nm.The reaction is catalyzed by metal ions.Alternatively, it has been proposed that the metal ion forms a complex with the hydrazide which is then oxidized[57–59]. Lophin(2,4,5 – triphenylimidazole) is the most representative of the imidazole CL-precursors . A yellow CL-emission is produced at 525 nm. by oxidation of Luphin in aqueous alkaline mediums[60]. Lucigenine(10, 10 dimethyl – 9, 9 -biascridiniumnitrate) is one of the most efficient CL-substances which emit an intense green emission at 470 nm. When oxidized in an alkaline medium [61]. In relation to indirect CL., one of the more efficient non – biological system that are used is based on and so – called peroxy oxalate CL-reaction (PO – CL ) which involves the hydrogen peroxide oxidation of an aryl oxalate ester in the presence of a fluorophore .Bis–( 2,4,6 – trichloro phenyl )oxalate (TCPO) and bis – ( 2,4– dinitro phenyl ) oxalate (DNPO ) are commonly used oxalates. These compounds are insoluble in water which requires the use of organic solvents such as acetonitrilies ,dioxane and ethyl acetate [62]. Another CL-system frequently applied involves the use of Ru [bpy]3+2 which produces an orange emission at 610 nm.From the excited state (Ru [bpy]3+2)* that can be obtained by different reactions which imply electron transfer and regeneration of Ru[bpy ]3+2 species. Recently , the higher CL-emission generated by a similar complex , Ru[phen]3+2(phen = 1,10 – phenanthroline) during oxidation ofRu [bpy ]3+2 by Ce(IV) in sulfuric acid medium Ru [bpy]3+2 is the most studied as an inorganic compound used in electro generated CL (ECL)[60,63]. 1.2.2.3.Solid Phase Chemiluminescence [35]. Some polymers exhibit weak CL. in the visible range when heated up in the presence of inert gas (air or oxygen). For the first time this phenomenon was observed by Ashby in 1961, from polypropylene. Emission of light during oxidation of polymers is called oxy- luminescence or oxychemiluminescence. And for CL. of polymers to be observed, oxygen must be present in the process. 1.2.3.Electro Generated Chemiluminescence (ECL) ECL : is the process in accordance with which , species generated at electrodes undergo high – energy electron – transfer reactions to form excited states that emit light , it occurs in the visible region of spectrum as a consequence of fast and highly exo-energetic electron . Transfer between a strong electron donor and electronacceptor which in turn results in generation of excited states [7].In general, electrically generated reactants diffuse from one or more electrodes, and undergo high – energy electron transfer reactions either with one other or with chemicals in solution. This process yields excited state molecules, which produce a CL- emission in the vicinity of the electrode surface. Application of ECL have almost exclusively focused on the reaction of tris(2, 2 – bipyridire) ruthenium Ru[bpy]3+2 the reaction takes place at room temperature . Wide pH range and in the presence of oxygen and many other impurities[64].Ru [bpy]3+2 itself can undergo electron transfer reactions to produce ECL as follows [65]. Luminol can undergo an ECL reaction due to its versatility in analytical determinations. in alkaline solution luminol anion undergoes a single electron electro-oxidation to form diazaquinine , which is further oxidized by peroxide or super oxide to give 3 – amino phthalate in an excited state , which emits light at 425 nm . Luminol ECL has been used for determination of species such as phenyl alanine, ibuprofen and hisidine [9]. 1.3. Fluorescence Photoluminescence becomes visible as optical radiation accompanied by the emission of photon depending on the duration of the phenomenon, i.e. life time of the excited state. Fluorescence is the spontaneous emission of light during transition of the system from its lowest vibrational energy level of an excited singlet state S1 back to the ground state S0,thus it’s a spin allowed process. Absorption and fluorescence don’t require any spin reorientation however; intersystem crossing and phosphorescence require a spin reorientation therefore; absorbance and fluorescence are much faster than phosphorescence. The processes that occur between the absorption and emission of light are usually illustrated by Jobalonski diagram [66, 67]; figure (1-4). Figure (1-4):- Perrin- Jobalonski diagram and illustration of the relative positions of absorption (Abs), fluorescence (F), andphosphorescence (Ph.) Fluorescence is the result of three stages process that occurs in certain molecules called fluorophores [67]. Excitation: a photon is supplied by an external source and absorbed by the fluorophore creating an excited electronic singlet state S1. This stage distinguishes fluorescence from chemiluminescence, in which the excited state is populated by a chemical reaction. State life time:fluorescence life time is typically 1-10 Nano sec. during this time the fluorophore undergoes conformational changes and is also subjected to a multitude of possible interactions with its molecular environment such as collisional quenching and intersystem crossing. Fluorescence emission: when a photon of energy is emitted returning the fluorophore to the ground stat S0. Figure (1-5) shows these three stages. Figure (1-5):- three stages of fluorescence emission process 1.3.1. Characteristics of fluorescence emission [68-70] Emission spectra are typically independent of the excitation wave length due to the partial dissipation of excitation energy during the excited state life time, this known as Kasha’s rule. The emission intensity is proportional to the amplitude of the fluorescence excitation spectrum at the excitation wavelength; figure (1-6). Figure (1-6):- emission spectra are typically independent of the excitation wavelength Stokes shift: due to the energy dissipation during the excited state life time, the energy of this photon is lower and therefore; of longer wavelength than the excitation photon (i.e.fluorescence light is a red-shift). This difference in energy or wavelength is known as stokes shift.† The difference in wavelength between positions of the band maxima of the absorption and emission spectra of the same electronic transition; figure (1-7). Solvent effects and excited state reactions can also affect the magnitude of stokes shift. Figure (1-7):-stokes shift of band maxima E = hÃŽ ½ = hÃâ€"c / ÃŽ » (1) h = Planck constant = 6.63 Ãâ€" 10-34 J.sec-1 c = light velocity ÃŽ ½ = light frequency Sec-1 or Hz ÃŽ » = wave length nm. Absorption energy EAbs.= hÃâ€"c / ÃŽ »Abs. (2) Emission energy Eem.= hÃâ€"c / ÃŽ »em. (3) Since: EemAbs. (4)so: ÃŽ »em.>ÃŽ »Abs (5) ÃŽ »em.,ÃŽ »Abs: emission and absorption spectra peaks respectively. When absorption and/or the emission spectra of a flourophore possess two or more bands, stokes shift is equal to the difference that separates the two most intense bands of the two spectra, figure (1-8). Figure (1-8):-stokes shift in a flourophore possess two bands If thermal energy is added to an excited state or compound has many highly populated vibrational energy levels, emission at shorter wavelengths than those of absorption occurs, this is called an anti-stokes shift and its often observed in dilute gasses at high temperatures. A key feature of fluorescence is the molecule spends a measurable Amount of time in the singlet state. Fluorescence life time refers to the average time that the molecule stays in its excited state before emitting a photon for fluorescence; it’s typically in the range (1-10 nsec.). Fluorescence radiant power (F) is proportional to the absorbed radiant power. F = É ¸ (P0 – P) - (6) É ¸: Fluorescence efficiency. P0: incident power. P: transmitted power. The relationship between the absorbed radiant power and concentration can be obtained from beers law P/P0 = 10-A- (7) P = P0 Ãâ€" 10-Ɇºbc - (8)F = É ¸ P0 (1–10-Ɇºbc)- (9) Structural factors. Fluorescence is expected in molecules that are aromatic or multiple conjugated double bonds with a high degree of resonance stability, it’s also expected with poly cyclic aromatic

How to Survive Portuguese Taxi Ride :: Free Expository Process Essays

How to Survive Portuguese Taxi Ride Less than twenty-four hours after arriving in Portugal, I was introduced to my first taxi ride. I was traveling with a native Portuguese girl, Sandra Batista. Sandra called a taxi to take us to our home. I hadn't, yet, experienced a taxi ride in Portugal. I had heard how dreadful these rides can be, especially the first time. "Consider yourself forewarned," a friend had cautioned a few minutes before I boarded the plane. He was, of course, referring to the taxi drivers in Portugal. I laughed. "The taxi drivers can't be that bad," I reasoned with him. He laughed. He had the last laugh. In fact, he still laughs about my ignorance. The taxi pulled up and Sandra and I got in. She took the passenger's seat; I sat in the rear. I felt calm. After the first acceleration, that serenity transformed to sheer panic and nausea. I was praying silently as I held on for dear life. Sandra was nonchalant; she animatedly spoke in Portuguese to the driver. The spoken language was foreign to me; her body language was not. She was completely unaffected. Fifteen minutes later we arrived home. "For cars and motorcycles the speed limits are 60 kilometers per hour (37 m.p.h.) in built up areas (city streets)." (Baedeker 388) Our driver was averaging about 90 kilometers per hour (55 m.p.h.). Sandra thanked and tipped our driver. I lost my lunch in the nearest bush. It was my first "near-death experience," as I like to call it; little did I know, I would endure several more experiences similar to this one in the following year and a half, while residing in Portugal. After several months of fearing, my life, followed by vomiting, I decided to create a method for relaxation in the Portuguese taxi. First, give yourself time to prepare for the event. You will need a good amount of time to think about and prepare for your excursion. Meditation is powerful. In Lamaze classes, for example, you are told to have a calm and peaceful setting to think about when labor pains get climactic and intense; the Portuguese taxi ride qualifies as "intense." Prepare your mind by thinking of a peaceful scene; this scene could be a beach or a forest setting. Pondering a roller coaster ride would not be a good idea. Thinking through an entire calm setting can put your mind into "relax" mode.

Womens Freedom during Chinas Revolutionary Period Essay -- Asian His

Women's Freedom during China's Revolutionary Period During the revolutionary period in China from 1921 to 1934, although there were undercurrents of an actual feminist movement, according to Kay Ann Johnson in Women, the Family & Peasant Revolution in China, women’s progress resulted more as a necessity of the war than the leadership’s commitment to emancipate women. Furthermore, when tension arose between men and women, the leadership usually appeased men over women. By not discussing the mentality of the political parties and the dynamics of the war, Hughes and Hughes’ critique lacks an explanation of the underlying motives that drove these parties to sometimes support women and other times reject women’s interests. Hughes and Hughes explain that â€Å"male educators and members of the KMT now proclaimed Chinese women emancipated† (H&H 237). However, Johnson’s critique paints quite a different and more complex emancipation. The philosophies of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) reflected undertones of feminist thought and consideration. The CCP’s ideology developed in the early twentieth century as a result of a radical intellectual movement in urban areas composed of disillusioned students and professors. The CCP did recognize women’s progressive demands and desires for equal rights. In 1922, at the Second National Congress, the Party established the Women’s Department which aided women’s revolutionary political activity (Johnson 41). The Manifesto of the Second Congress responded to women’s groups such as the Woman Suffrage Alliance and the Alliance for the Women’s Rights Movements by including objectives such as â€Å"the limited right to vote for all workers and peasants, regardless of sex, [and] protect... ...ower in the war. Thus, it is difficult to assess whether women did attain emancipation since emancipation under such a politically charged atmosphere seems rather tainted. In addition, when conflict arose between men and women, politics usually supported male interests. Hughes and Hughes do not fully illustrate the complex motives that drove these parties to either support or abandon women’s interests in order to maintain political unity. Thus, it is problematic to only read Hughes and Hughes critique because it lacks an in-depth discussion of the complex dynamics during the revolution. Works Cited Hughes, Sarah Shaver and Brady Hughes. Women in World History: Readings from 1500 to the Present. Vol 2. New York: M.E. Sharpe Inc., 1997. Johnson, Kay Ann. Women, the Family and Peasant Revolution in China. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1983.

Environment Analysis of Greater Manchester County Essay -- Environment

My essay focuses on the county of Greater Manchester in North West England. A thriving metropolitan area, the county has been a place of interest since its rise in the Industrial Revolution. Greater Manchester is a landlocked county in the North West region of England. The Pennine mountain range runs along its northern and eastern borders, whilst the West Pennine Moors are found on its western border. To the south lies Cheshire, a flat county with large plains left by glaciers in previous Ice Ages. Greater Manchester therefore has a graded profile, with steep mountains and hills to the north-east gradually settling out to low-lying, fertile plains in the south-west. The county’s geology consists mainly of rock from 3 geological periods; the Carboniferous, Permian and Triassic, alongside glacial deposits left over from Ice Ages in the Quaternary period. The oldest rocks seem to be found in the north-east of the county, and the youngest in the south-east. The Permian and Triassic rocks laid down are indicative of hot, desert conditions with the formation of mudstones and sandstones; Red Permian sandstones are overlaid by red, brown and yellow Triassic sandstones and mudstones from the Sherwood Sandstone Group. These rocks are found mainly in southern Greater Manchester. (Natural England). Glacial till is also common in the low-lying areas to the south and west of Greater Manchester. Following frequent changes in climate in the Quaternary period, glaciers have advanced and retreated leaving a layer of glacial deposits in their wake (Natural England). These deposits were transported downstream via meltwater rivers to lowland areas, making them fertile and very useful for pastoral farming. As such, lowland areas have become popula... ...ved January 16, 2011, from Crimestop Guards: http://www.crimestopguards.co.uk/manchester.htm Geology Roam. (n.d.). Retrieved January 16, 2011, from Edina Digimap: http://digimap.edina.ac.uk/geologymapper/geologymapper;jsessionid=2E1FABFC46F36A0FF08FE920D9377244?execution=e1s1 Greater Manchester. (n.d.). Retrieved January 16, 2011, from Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_Manchester#Climate Natural England. (n.d.). Retrieved January 16, 2011, from Natural England: http://www.naturalengland.org.uk/ourwork/conservation/geodiversity/englands/counties/area_ID15.aspx Seager, R. (2006). The Source of Europe's Mild Climate. American Scientist, 334 - 341. UK Mine & Quarry Listout - North West England. (n.d.). Retrieved January 16, 2011, from UK Mine & Quarry Listout - North West England: http://www.aditnow.co.uk/mines-quarries-uk-regions/north-west-england/

Morality and Importance of Moral Values

Raising a family in a society that is fast-paced and ever changing can make it confusing to know just which values to teach your children. As a general rule, it’s up to you to teach your children what to believe, and how they should live their lives. But when it comes to teaching and instilling moral values, I’d love to pass on a few values to teach your children from a young age. These are simple and common everyday values that are quickly fading from our younger generation. Read on to discover what they are!1. RESPECTOne of the most important values to teach your children is respect. Having worked in several daycare facilities, I’ve seen children who have no respect for authority at all. It’s exasperating to the teacher, and to the parent when they arrive to pick up their kids. By teaching your kids respect, you are doing the world, yourself, and your child a favor! Life will go much easier for them with a little respect under their hat. If you have got to give a speech on moral values you have to stress the significance of moral values in life and should never ignore them. Here are some things you may use so that you can present this essential subject to your audience.You can say moral values are necessary because the Bible instructs us to be moral. Actually, during history moral values have been the foundation of our education. First of all mom and dad, then school, and finally universities and colleges were instructing us to be kind, honest, sincere, warmhearted, and so on. Religion used to be one of the most effective instruments to instill moral values into people. Religion has been getting rid of its impact in many states around the globe. These days it is still vital to many, but only for a segment of lots of societies. Moral values are still widely used as a debate topic, but regrettably they are often no that significant for a lot of people.The importance of moral values in life is one thing nobody can seriously argue with , despite the fact that today it is a popular practice. Many well known film and popular music superstars, political figures, and other successful people speak about liberal values – freedom of expression, religious beliefs, a hedonistic lifestyle, etc. Their point is that individual freedom is the most significant value to fight for! No person can  make you do what you do not want to do, so you are free to be bad or kind, sincere, or not – it is your individual decision, and everyone have to appreciate it.That is why it's acceptable to abuse alcohol, take drugs, and be impolite, rude or even cruel – if you prefer to act like that, it is your right. Freedom is the only value! Needless to say, liberal values are not that awful. The problem is they in some way destroy the moral foundation of the modern society. When the Bible is no longer the primary instructor of moral behavior, at least, for Christians, there's a risk people will stop thinking about moral valu es as important.This is currently happening in most liberal democratic nations in comparison to traditional Eastern ones, where the religious impact of Islam is still big. We may discuss the political regimes of those states, and the exercise of individual freedom and human rights there, but there’s a thing most people will agree with – they stress the importance of moral values in life; it's the key component of their tradition.Speech on Moral Values and the Importance of Moral Values in Life: Are They truly Important?In your speech on moral values you have to find out the actual importance of moral values in life. In the modern world of income oriented individuals it's hard to stay a moral person; nevertheless it's not extremely hard. Many do. Every single day we hear that a lot of people are murdered by criminals; in a number of states they brazenly shoot and kill rival gangs members on the streets all simply because of money.Cash is the value. Not kindness or princ iples. Not morals. Greed for money is the only driving force of these people! Every single day we see how people tell a lie, do everything possible to have the job they need, even it demands that they do something awful, against the law, or immoral. Young men try to have a girl they wish without any idea about moral values. This ought to help you with materials for your speech on moral values. We realize the significance of moral values in life, don’t we? And right now, after having a short speech on moral values, we're ready to write a moral values essay.Moral Values Essay: Writing TipsWhen writing your moral values essay do not forget to stick to the structure. Your essay should contain an introduction, a body paragraph and a conclusion. Moreover, your moral values essay should present your own point of view on the topic. In fact, you may use the ideas listed above and support them with your additional thoughts. When summarizing your essay, give your readers a clear conclus ion on the importance of moral values in our life.Speech on Moral Values and Moral Values Essay: HelpIf you continue to think your speech on moral values or your moral values essay can not be done without qualified help, or you simply lack the spare time to do it on your own – professional writing company is ready to assist you! We have authors skilled in different disciplines. Furthermore, all of them have a Masters degree or a PhD; so composing an essay or a speech for university won't be a problem for them. It'll be created from scratch in accordance to your recommendations and within your deadline.Besides, you'll also get: Absolutely free on-line 24/7 help. Free of charge proofreading and editing. Free of charge preview of the primary page of your order. The possibility to pick the best writer for your task. You manage the progress of your order, and can easily make corrections. A warranty the work will be plagiarism free. All this is offered at an inexpensive price as we understand students are on restricted budgets.Do not think twice to post your order now and get the finest grades for your written task! We always do our best to please our customers.